Evaluation of ventricular synchrony is of interest for both diagnostic and therapeutic applications. During normal cardiac function the cardiac chambers observe consistent time-dependent relationships during the systolic (contractile) phase and the diastolic (relaxation) phase of the cardiac cycle. During cardiac dysfunction associated with pathological conditions or following cardiac-related surgical procedures, these time-dependent mechanical relationships are often altered. This alteration, when combined with the effects of weakened cardiac muscles, reduces the ability of the ventricles to generate contractile strength resulting in hemodynamic insufficiency.
Ventricular dyssynchrony following coronary artery bypass graft (CABG) surgery is a problem encountered relatively often, requiring post-operative temporary pacing. Atrio-biventricular pacing has been found to improve post-operative hemodynamics following such procedures. A widely accepted, standardized method for selecting pacing sites and pacing intervals that provide the greatest hemodynamic benefit to the patient during the critical recovery phase, however, has not been available.
Chronic cardiac resynchronization therapy (CRT) has been clinically demonstrated to improve indices of cardiac function in patients suffering from congestive heart failure. Cardiac pacing may be applied to one or both ventricles or multiple heart chambers, including one or both atria, to improve cardiac chamber coordination, which in turn is thought to improve stroke volume and pumping efficiency. Clinical follow-up of patients undergoing resynchronization therapy has shown improvements in hemodynamic measures of cardiac function, left ventricular volumes, and wall motion. However, not all patients respond favorably to cardiac resynchronization therapy. Physicians are challenged in selecting patients that will benefit and in selecting the optimal pacing intervals between the atria and ventricles (A-V intervals) and between the ventricles (V-V intervals), also collectively referred to herein as “A-V-V” intervals, applied to resynchronize the heart chamber contractions.
Selection of pacing intervals may be based on echocardiographic studies performed to determine the settings resulting in the best net output, or other selected hemodynamic response. In the InSync III clinical trial conducted to evaluate resynchronization therapy, the A-V-V intervals were optimized individually in patients by shortening the A-V interval to maximize LV filling without truncating the atrial contribution as observed by echocardiography and to maximize stroke volume. Acute increases in stroke volume have been related to chronically sustained clinical benefits.
Echocardiographic approaches for optimizing resynchronization therapy provide only an open-loop method for selecting pacing intervals. After evaluating the hemodynamic effect of varying combinations of pacing intervals, a clinician must manually select and program the desired parameters. Furthermore, an echocardiographic procedure for optimizing resynchronization therapy can require substantial time and personnel. A technician is required to program A-V-V timing schemes while a sonographer interprets the effects on the heart. A period of hemodynamic stabilization is generally desired prior to evaluating the hemodynamic effects of a particular timing scheme. However, the time required to reach hemodynamic stability may be uncertain. Echocardiographic assessments of ventricular synchrony or the hemodynamic response to resynchronization therapy are further limited, therefore, in that measurements are available only at a particular time point and may be affected by the patient's condition on that particular day.
Numerous algorithms for optimizing the A-V interval during dual chamber pacing to improve cardiac function or hemodynamic status have been described including automatic algorithms based on an implantable sensor of hemodynamic function. Reference is made, for example, to U.S. Pat. No. 5,700,283 to Salo; and U.S. Pat. No. 5,626,623 issued to Kieval et al. Examples of implantable sensors proposed or known for measuring hemodynamic function include impedance sensors for measuring cardiac output, intracardiac blood pressure sensors, acoustical sensors for monitoring heart sounds, and Doppler ultrasound sensors for monitoring flow. Reference is made, for example, to U.S. Pat. No. 5,334,222 to Salo et al.; and U.S. Pat. No. 6,477,406 issued to Turcott.
Multichamber pacing systems having automated selection of pacing intervals have also been proposed. A four-chamber pacing system that includes impedance sensing for determining the timing of right heart valve closure or right ventricular contraction and adjusting the timing of delivery of left ventricular pace pulses is generally disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 6,223,082 issued to Bakels, et al., incorporated herein by reference in its entirety. Programmable coupling intervals selected so as to provide optimal hemodynamic benefit to the patient in an implantable multichamber cardiac stimulation device are generally disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 6,473,645 issued to Levine, incorporated herein by reference in its entirety. Improvement in cardiac function is based on a generic physiological sensor. Such automated systems have not been put to clinical use to date.
Implantable sensors for monitoring heart wall motion have been described or implemented for use in relation to the right ventricle. A sensor implanted in the heart mass for monitoring heart function by monitoring the momentum or velocity of the heart mass is generally disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 5,454,838 issued to Vallana et al. A catheter for insertion into the ventricle for monitoring cardiac contractility having an acceleration transducer at or proximate the catheter tip is generally disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 6,077,236 issued to Cunningham. Implantable leads incorporating accelerometer-based cardiac wall motion sensors are generally disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 5,628,777 issued to Moberg, et al. A device for sensing natural heart acceleration is generally disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 5,693,075, issued to Plicchi, et al. A system for myocardial tensiometery including a tensiometric element disposed at a location subject to bending due to cardiac contractions is generally disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 5,261,418 issued to Ferek-Petric et al. All of the above-cited patents are hereby incorporated herein by reference in their entirety.
Detection of peak endocardial wall motion in the apex of the right ventricle for optimizing A-V intervals has been validated clinically. A system and method for using cardiac wall motion sensor signals to provide hemodynamically optimal values for heart rate and AV interval are generally disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 5,549,650 issued to Bornzin, et al., incorporated herein by reference in its entirety. A cardiac stimulating system designed to automatically optimize both the pacing mode and one or more pacing cycle parameters in a way that results in optimization of a cardiac performance parameter, including for example heart accelerations, is generally disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 5,540,727, issued to Tockman, et al.